Category: Basic Education

Posted in Uncategorized, Politics, governance, Basic Education, Language in education

Multilingualism, Cultural Pluralism and Curriculum Development in Basic Education in Nigeria

Posted on by Noel Ihebuzor

By Noel A. Ihebuzor

Introduction

Multilingualism and cultural pluralism have received considerable scholarly and policy attention in countries such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and France because of their implications for national integration, identity preservation, and educational development. In many African countries, however, including Nigeria, these issues have often received only superficial attention despite their enormous significance for social cohesion, equity, and curriculum development.

Nigeria is one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse countries in the world, with over 250 ethnic groups and more than 500 languages. Such diversity presents both opportunities and challenges for education policy and curriculum development. While diversity can enrich learning and strengthen cultural identity, it can also create tensions relating to language policy, representation, access, and national integration.

This paper examines the relationship between multilingualism, cultural pluralism, and curriculum development in Nigerian basic education. It explores the conceptual foundations of multiculturalism and cultural pluralism, analyses their implications for curriculum development, and discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and threats associated with multilingual and culturally plural educational systems. The paper further examines how power relations, linguistic dominance, and educational policy shape curriculum choices in Nigeria and concludes with recommendations for a more inclusive and equitable curriculum framework. The writing of this paper is informed by concerns for equity, respect for language rights and the imperative for culturally responsive pedagogy. A related motivation was the need to broaden the rhetoric on curriculum decolonisation to include recognising the dangers in the subtle colonisation of speakers of minority languages in multilingual African countries such as Nigeria by speakers of dominant languages in these same countries. Implicit in the above is the invitation to the reader that colonisation is colonisation. Denying a speaker of a minority language education in his/her language is thus a measure that could lead to exclusion. Given the vital link between language and indigenous knowledge systems, such an exclusion could also lead to major losses in indigenous knowledge systems for speakers of such languages

Keywords: Multilingualism, cultural pluralism, curriculum development, language policy, minority languages, multicultural education, Nigeria.

Conceptual Clarifications

Multiculturalism and Cultural Pluralism

Multiculturalism refers to the coexistence of multiple cultural groups within a society. It is commonly associated with policies that recognize cultural diversity and encourage the inclusion of different cultural traditions within national life. Multicultural societies may contain dominant and minority cultures of varying demographic and political strength.

Cultural pluralism, on the other hand, refers to a situation in which diverse cultural groups are not only allowed to exist but are also encouraged to preserve and develop their unique identities, languages, traditions, and values. Unlike monocultural systems that encourage assimilation into a dominant culture, cultural pluralism promotes integration without cultural absorption.

The distinction between multiculturalism and cultural pluralism is significant. Multiculturalism may simply describe the presence of multiple cultures, whereas cultural pluralism implies deliberate policies aimed at protecting minority identities and ensuring equitable representation.

Linguicism and Linguistic Imperialism

The concept of linguicism, introduced by Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, refers to discrimination based on language. It describes ideological and structural processes that privilege certain languages while marginalizing others.

Closely related is the idea of linguistic imperialism, developed by Robert Phillipson, which explains how dominant languages expand through political, educational, and economic power structures. In multilingual societies such as Nigeria, language choices in education often reflect broader struggles over power, identity, and cultural dominance.

The privileging of major languages over minority languages in schools can therefore become a mechanism for reinforcing social inequalities and weakening minority cultures.

Curriculum Development as a Political and Cultural Process

Curriculum development is often presented as a technical or pedagogical process involving the selection of learning content, teaching methods, and evaluation procedures. However, curriculum development is also deeply political and ideological because it involves decisions about:

  • what knowledge is valuable;
  • whose culture is represented;
  • which languages are promoted;
  • which histories are remembered;
  • and what kind of society education seeks to create.

Education is not culturally neutral. Beyond transmitting knowledge and skills, it also functions as a mechanism for cultural transmission, identity formation, and social reproduction.

Scholars such as Pierre Bourdieu and Michael Young argue that curriculum can become an instrument for reproducing dominant cultural values while marginalizing less powerful groups. In multicultural societies, curriculum development therefore reflects existing power relations and ideological preferences This is especially evident in subjects such as language, history, social studies, religion, literature and civic education. These subjects often privilege dominant cultural narratives while underrepresenting minority perspectives.

Multilingualism and Cultural Pluralism in Nigeria

Nigeria’s educational system operates within a highly multilingual and multicultural environment. The country’s language policy recognizes English as the official language and identifies Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba as the three major Nigerian languages. Numerous other indigenous languages are recognized as mother tongues, although many are not adequately supported within formal education.

This arrangement has generated significant educational and sociopolitical tensions.

For example, children from minority linguistic backgrounds frequently experience what may be described as a “multiple language burden.” A child from a minority ethnic group living outside his or her ancestral community may be required to learn:

  • the local dominant language;
  • one of the three major Nigerian languages;
  • and English.

This creates unequal linguistic demands compared to children from dominant linguistic groups.

The emphasis on the three major languages also creates concerns about:

  • linguistic marginalization;
  • unequal resource allocation;
  • cultural domination;
  • and the gradual disappearance of minority languages.

The latter concern, that of a concern with the phenomenon of language disappearance, sometimes described as glottophagy, becomes when smaller languages are gradually abandoned due to pressure from dominant languages and cultures.

Models of Cultural Pluralism

The literature identifies several models of cultural pluralism:

Cooperative Model -Different cultural groups collaborate harmoniously while maintaining their identities.

Conflict Model – Cultural groups compete for recognition, influence, and resources, often generating tension.

Coercive Model – Dominant groups compel minority groups to adopt dominant cultural norms; and

Domination Model – Powerful groups impose their culture through institutions such as schools, media, and government policies (Young, 1979; Phillipson, 1997)

In reality, most societies display elements of several models simultaneously. In Nigeria, these models play out in such things as the choice of which Nigerian language should be learnt as L2 and which language should be used as mother tongue in school settings characterized by the presence of learners from different first languages. Given the close affiliation between language and culture, any language choices in such settings ultimately become a choice of which culture to advantage.

Challenges of Cultural Pluralism and Multilingualism in Nigerian Education

These are several and include Language Policy and Inequality, curriculum representation, the reality of resource constraints, the ever-present ethnic and religious sensitivities which may colour perception of educational decision taken, the problem of teacher supply and the availability of pedagogical materials. Let us now take up each of these in turn and discuss each albeit briefly

Language Policy and Inequality – One of the most difficult issues in Nigerian education concerns the language of instruction. While mother-tongue education is pedagogically desirable, implementing it across hundreds of languages is financially and administratively challenging.

Consequently, many minority languages remain excluded from instructional use, placing their speakers at educational disadvantage.

Curriculum Representation

Curriculum content in areas such as history and social studies often reflects dominant cultural narratives. National heroes, historical figures, and cultural references are frequently drawn from major ethnic groups, while minority cultures receive limited representation.

This may unintentionally create feelings of inferiority and exclusion among learners from minority backgrounds.

Resource Constraints

Developing multilingual curricula requires:

  • trained teachers;
  • instructional materials;
  • translation services;
  • orthographies for local languages;
  • and sustained financial investment.

Many developing countries struggle to provide these resources adequately.

Ethnic and Religious Sensitivities

Curriculum decisions involving religion, language, and culture are highly sensitive in Nigeria. Disagreements over religious instruction, civic education, and historical interpretation often reflect broader societal tensions.

Standardization Difficulties

Cultural diversity complicates efforts to standardize curriculum, assessment, and educational delivery nationwide. However, a basic truth that is worth asserting is that uniformity of curriculum offerings does not necessarily produce unity.

Teacher Preparedness

Many teachers lack adequate preparation in culturally responsive pedagogy. Without proper training, multicultural education may unintentionally reinforce stereotypes rather than promote inclusion.

Advantages of Cultural Pluralism and Multilingualism

Despite these challenges, cultural pluralism offers significant educational and societal benefits. These include the following:

Promotion of National Unity Through Inclusion

Inclusive curricula help learners feel recognized and valued within the national community, thereby strengthening social cohesion.

Preservation of Indigenous Cultures and Languages

Culturally responsive education contributes to the preservation of indigenous languages, histories, and knowledge systems.

Improved Learning Outcomes

Research consistently shows that children learn more effectively when instruction connects with their linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

Promotion of Tolerance and Intercultural Understanding

Exposure to multiple cultural perspectives helps reduce prejudice and promotes empathy, mutual respect, and peaceful coexistence. Specifically, the Urhobo adolescent who learns about Itsekiri culture is not only bound to become a more rounded but is also bound to display skills of empathy, acceptance and appreciation of fellow learners from other cultures.

Development of Critical Thinking

Multicultural education encourages learners to engage with diverse viewpoints and question assumptions critically.

Strengthening Learner Identity and Self-Esteem

Representation of diverse cultures in curriculum content helps learners develop confidence and pride in their heritage.

Disadvantages and Threats

These are several and include the following:

Risk of Ethnic Fragmentation

Excessive emphasis on cultural differences may deepen ethnic consciousness and weaken national identity.

Cultural Domination

Dominant groups may use education and language policy to reinforce their cultural influence over minority groups.

Linguistic Imperialism

Globalization and the increasing dominance of English create pressures that undermine indigenous languages and cultures. In the Nigerian case, the spread of Hausa language in the North of the country has become a threat to the survival of minority languages, some of which are now threatened with extinction of glottophagy. Without deliberate preservation efforts, minority languages may gradually disappear due to assimilation and globalization pressures.

Curriculum Overload

Attempting to represent all cultural groups adequately may lead to an overcrowded curriculum, but at the barest minimum, efforts must be made to ensure representativeness of the cultural practices of the various groups in society, whilst avoiding the dangers of political manipulation that may accompany such efforts as selection of  Curriculum content may become politicized by powerful stakeholders with strong interests, such dangers being especially high in areas involving history, language, and religion.

The challenge of all the foregoing is how to develop school programs that capture the major educational benefits of multilingualism and cultural pluralism whilst minimizing the downsides. The next section examines their implications for curriculum development.

Implications for Curriculum Development in Nigeria

This concluding section commences on the basic premise that Curriculum development in Nigeria must balance two competing imperatives:

  • promoting national unity;
  • preserving cultural diversity.

Such a curriculum development should also be culturally responsive. A culturally responsive curriculum should:

  • represent diverse cultures fairly;
  • avoid stereotyping;
  • promote inclusive citizenship;
  • support multilingual education;
  • and foster intercultural dialogue.

There is also a need to move away from curricula that privilege only dominant narratives and instead create space for minority histories, local heroes, indigenous knowledge systems, and community experiences. The solutions proposed below are based on these foundational principles

Proposed Solutions and Recommendations

Promote Multilingual Education

Nigeria should strengthen mother-tongue instruction, especially at the early childhood and lower basic education levels.

Develop Inclusive Curricula

Curriculum content should reflect the histories, cultures, and experiences of diverse Nigerian communities.

Strengthen Teacher Training

Teachers should receive professional preparation in:

  • culturally responsive pedagogy;
  • multilingual education;
  • conflict-sensitive teaching;
  • and inclusive curriculum delivery.

Encourage Community Participation

Curriculum development should involve stakeholders from different cultural and linguistic groups as this is one sure way to ensure relevance and critical stakeholder engagement with school curricula.

Support Minority Languages

Government should invest in:

  • orthography development;
  • local language publishing;
  • translation;
  • teacher recruitment;
  • and indigenous language media.

All the suggested policy interventions above come under the scope of language engineering and planned language expansion. These are well discussed in Rubin and Jernudd (1971). At the Nigerian level, these issues mentioned above are well examined in Bamgbose, Akere, and Ihebuzor (1992) and in Ihebuzor and Junaidu (1994).

There is also the need to balance Diversity with National Cohesion whilst making efforts to integrate Indigenous Knowledge Systems in curricula offerings

Furthermore, educational policy should promote shared civic values while respecting cultural diversity. At the same time, and this is the challenging part, efforts must be made to ensure that curriculum content incorporates local knowledge, environmental practices, conflict-resolution traditions, and cultural heritage.

Finally, there is a need for regular and continuous curriculum review to ensure inclusiveness, relevance, and responsiveness of curricula to Nigeria’s evolving sociocultural realities.

Conclusion

Multilingualism and cultural pluralism remain central issues in curriculum development within Nigeria’s basic education system. While cultural diversity enriches education and strengthens democratic inclusion, it also presents significant challenges relating to language policy, equity, representation, and national cohesion.

Curriculum development in multicultural societies cannot be viewed as a neutral process. It reflects broader struggles over identity, power, ideology, and cultural representation. Consequently, educational policy must carefully balance the demands of national integration with the imperative of protecting minority cultures and languages.

For Nigeria, the challenge is not whether cultural pluralism should exist, but how it should be managed in ways that promote inclusion, educational equity, social cohesion, and sustainable national development. Finally, the way that Nigeria manages its cultural pluralism and multilingualism must be such that would advance her pursuit of SDGs 4 and 11.

Selected References

  • Bamgbose, A. (1992). Speaking in Tongues: Implications of Multilingualism for Language Policy in Nigeria.
  • Bamgbose, A,  Akere F and Noel Ihebuzor (eds) (1992), Implementing the language provisions of the National Policy on Education, NERDC. Abuja, NERDC/FME
  • Barrow, R. (1976). Common Sense and the Curriculum. London: George Allen and Unwin.
  • Brent, A. (1978). Philosophical Foundations for the Curriculum. London: George Allen and Unwin.
  • Federal Government of Nigeria (1981). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press
  • Fishman, J. (1993). “Ethnolinguistic Democracy: Varieties, Degrees and Limits.” Language International, 5(1), 11–14.
  • Ihebuzor, Noel& Ismail Junaidu (eds) (1994), Proceedings of the seminar on language survey planning, Lagos, NERDC
  • Phillipson, R. (1997). “Realities and Myths of Linguistic Imperialism.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 18(3), 238–248.
  • Rubin, J., & Jernudd, B. H. (1971). Can Language Be Planned? University of Hawaii Press.
  • Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (1988). “Multilingualism and the Education of Minority Children.” In Minority Education: From Shame to Struggle.
  • Young, C. (1979). The Politics of Cultural Pluralism. University of Wisconsin Press.
Posted in Basic Education, Poetry, Prose

Towards a Risk-Informed and Sensitive-Interpretative Approach to Literature Pedagogy at the Secondary School level in Nigeria

Posted on by Noel Ihebuzor

By Noel A. Ihebuzor

Abstract

The teaching of literature has long occupied a central place in secondary education because of its perceived contributions to language development, critical thinking, moral formation, emotional growth, and cultural understanding. In Nigeria, Literature-in-English remains a significant component of the secondary school curriculum and an important subject in public examinations. Much of the scholarly literature emphasizes these benefits and generally presents literature as an unqualified educational good. This article argues that such a perspective is incomplete. While literature offers substantial cognitive, linguistic, social, and ethical benefits, it may also expose learners to a range of pedagogical and ideological risks. Drawing on examples from African and Nigerian literary texts, the article examines concerns relating to age-inappropriate sexuality, violence, ideological influence, authorial bias, historical inaccuracies, racism, sexism, and gender-based violence. It argues for a shift from a purely celebratory understanding of literature teaching towards a risk-aware pedagogical framework that incorporates risk identification, mitigation strategies, and cost-benefit analysis. The article concludes that literature remains indispensable to holistic education but that its educational benefits can only be fully realized when teachers, curriculum developers, and policymakers consciously manage its potential risks.

Introduction

Literature occupies a distinctive position within secondary education because it combines linguistic, cultural, emotional, and intellectual learning in ways that few other school subjects can achieve. In Nigeria, Literature-in-English has traditionally been regarded as an important instrument for developing language proficiency, cultural awareness, creativity, and critical thinking. Through prescribed texts, students encounter diverse cultures, historical experiences, moral dilemmas, and social realities that contribute to their intellectual and personal development.

The educational value of literature has therefore been widely acknowledged by curriculum developers, teachers, examination bodies, and researchers. Literature is frequently presented as a means of nurturing empathy, promoting ethical reflection, enriching language skills, and fostering civic consciousness. Yet despite this broad consensus regarding its benefits, comparatively little attention has been paid to the risks and challenges associated with teaching literature to adolescents, particularly within developing-country contexts.

This omission is significant because literature is not merely a neutral repository of stories. Literary texts convey values, ideologies, historical interpretations, cultural assumptions, and models of human behaviour. Their influence may be positive, but it may also be problematic. Texts can normalize violence, reinforce stereotypes, present controversial ideological positions, or expose learners to themes for which they may not be developmentally prepared. Consequently, the teaching of literature should be approached not only as an educational opportunity but also as a pedagogical responsibility requiring careful management.

This article seeks to balance the dominant discourse on the benefits of literature with a critical examination of its risks. It argues that literature teaching should incorporate systematic processes of risk identification, risk mitigation, and cost-benefit analysis in order to maximize educational gains while minimizing potential harms.

The Educational Value of Literature

The case for literature teaching remains compelling. One of its most widely recognized contributions lies in the development of cognitive and linguistic abilities. Literary texts challenge students to interpret meanings, draw inferences, evaluate perspectives, and engage in imaginative thinking. Through exposure to rich and varied language, learners expand their vocabulary, improve reading comprehension, and develop sophisticated communication skills.

Beyond cognitive development, literature serves as an important vehicle for moral and ethical reflection. Literary narratives frequently present complex situations involving justice, responsibility, loyalty, courage, and integrity. Such encounters provide opportunities for learners to reflect on ethical questions and examine competing value systems.

Literature also contributes significantly to emotional and social development. Through engagement with fictional characters and situations, learners are exposed to diverse human experiences and perspectives. This process can cultivate empathy, emotional intelligence, and greater understanding of social relationships. Related concepts such as bibliotherapy and socio-emotional learning further highlight the capacity of literature to support personal growth and psychological development.

The cultural dimension of literature is equally important. Literary texts provide insights into societies, traditions, histories, and worldviews that may differ from those of the reader. In multicultural and postcolonial societies such as Nigeria, literature can strengthen cultural identity while simultaneously fostering intercultural understanding and tolerance.

Taken together, these contributions position literature as a valuable component of holistic education and as an important contributor to the development of creativity, critical citizenship, and twenty-first-century competencies.

From Educational Benefits to Pedagogical Responsibilities

The very qualities that make literature educationally powerful also make it potentially risky. Because literature engages emotions, shapes perceptions, and influences values, it possesses the capacity to affect learners in profound ways. Consequently, literature teaching should be regarded as a high-stakes pedagogical practice requiring careful planning and professional judgment.

Insights from reader-response theory, critical literacy, developmental psychology, and media-effects research suggest that readers do not encounter texts passively. Students actively construct meanings from what they read, yet those meanings are influenced by their developmental stage, social environment, prior experiences, and classroom context. These considerations underscore the need for a pedagogical framework that acknowledges both the benefits and the risks of literary engagement.

A useful way of conceptualizing this challenge is through the language of risk assessment and cost-benefit analysis. Such approaches are widely used in educational policy and curriculum development but have rarely been applied systematically to literature teaching. A risk-aware approach does not seek to censor literature; rather, it seeks to ensure that potentially problematic content is identified, contextualized, and addressed responsibly.

Risks in the Teaching of Literature

One important concern relates to age-inappropriate content and precocious sexuality. Adolescents are at a critical stage of psychological and social development, and exposure to explicit sexual themes may present challenges depending on learners’ age, maturity, and context. Texts such as “Mission to Kala” and some contemporary African fiction contain representations of sexuality and adult relationships that require careful mediation. There is a rich harvest of such in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s creative writings. Texts as “The Thing Around Your Neck” (– especially stories in it like the shivering, and The Arrangers of marriage,) “Americanah”, and “Dream Count” are replete with narratives of sexual encounters and content.  Without appropriate pedagogical guidance, such content may contribute to confusion, normalization of precocious sexual behaviour, or emotional discomfort among vulnerable learners.

Another concern involves the representation of violence and the ways in which literary texts sometimes present simplistic solutions to complex social problems. Works depicting revenge, vigilantism, or violent conflict may unintentionally reinforce problematic behavioural scripts if learners are not encouraged to interrogate the ethical dimensions of such actions. In some narratives, the handling of the problem of revenge can be very problematic. “The Passport of Mallam Ilia” by Cyprian Ekwnsi illustrates this amply, as the protagonist exacts physical revenge but suffers both physical and moral loss in the end. In some cases, social injustices appear to be resolved by eliminating an oppressor (as in the case of a very aggressive and overbearing father in “The Purple Hibiscus”) rather than through dialogue, institutional reform, or restorative processes. Such portrayals require critical classroom discussion to prevent simplistic moral conclusions.

Literature may also function as a carrier of ideology. Every literary text embodies particular assumptions about society, power, economics, religion, or politics. While exposure to diverse viewpoints is educationally valuable, there is a risk that students may uncritically internalize ideological positions if alternative perspectives are not presented. Texts that strongly reflect Marxist (see Sembene Ousmane’s God’s Bits of Wood” for example), nationalist, capitalist, or religious worldviews should therefore be taught within frameworks that encourage critical pluralism rather than ideological conformity.

Related concerns arise from authorial bias. Literary works, memoirs, and autobiographical narratives often reflect the experiences and perspectives of their authors. Achebe’s There was a Country” and Adichie’s “Half of a Yellow Sun” are good illustrations of such texts. While such perspectives can provide valuable insights, they may also present partial or contested interpretations of historical events. Learners who encounter only one narrative may develop incomplete understandings of complex social realities.

Historical fiction presents a further challenge because it occupies the boundary between imagination and historical representation. Powerful novels may shape students’ understanding of national history more effectively than history textbooks. Yet literary narratives often simplify, dramatize, or reinterpret historical events. Unless teachers explicitly distinguish between historical fact and artistic interpretation, learners may develop inaccurate understandings of important historical episodes.

The persistence of racism, sexism, patriarchy, and gender-based violence in some literary texts also warrants attention. Literary representations may reproduce stereotypes, normalize discrimination, or reinforce harmful social assumptions. Okot B’Tek’s “Song of Lawino” and Mariama Bah’s “So long a letter” are interesting to read, but these two texts can be said to contain ideologically motivated simplifications. While such texts can provide valuable opportunities for critical discussion, their educational value depends largely on the teacher’s ability to facilitate thoughtful analysis rather than passive acceptance.

Towards a Risk-Aware and Sensitive-Interpretative Literature Pedagogy

Recognizing these risks does not diminish the value of literature. Rather, it highlights the need for more sophisticated approaches to teaching. A risk-aware literature pedagogy begins with careful text selection and curriculum design. Texts should be evaluated not only for their literary merit but also for their developmental appropriateness, ideological complexity, representations of violence, and ethical implications.

Within the classroom, critical literacy approaches provide an effective means of managing risk. Students should be encouraged to question texts, identify assumptions, examine biases, and consider alternative interpretations. Literature teaching should move beyond admiration of authors and texts towards critical engagement with ideas and representations.

Sensitive topics such as sexuality, violence, and ideological conflict require careful framing before reading and thoughtful debriefing afterwards. Guided discussions, reflective writing activities, and structured classroom dialogue can help learners process difficult content constructively.

Multi-perspectival teaching offers another valuable strategy. Historical novels can be paired with historical documents; ideological texts can be complemented by alternative viewpoints; literary representations can be compared with empirical evidence. Such approaches help learners appreciate complexity and avoid simplistic conclusions.

Teacher preparation is equally important. Literature teachers require training not only in literary analysis but also in adolescent psychology, ethics of representation, critical literacy, and the facilitation of controversial issues. Professional development programmes should therefore equip teachers with the knowledge and skills needed to manage sensitive content responsibly.

A broader support system involving parents, counsellors, examination bodies, and policymakers can further strengthen risk management efforts. Clear guidelines concerning sensitive content and appropriate pedagogical responses would enhance both accountability and educational effectiveness.

Conclusion

The teaching of literature remains one of the most valuable components of secondary education. Its contributions to language development, critical thinking, moral reflection, emotional growth, and cultural understanding are substantial and well established. Nevertheless, literature is not inherently benign. Because it shapes perceptions, values, and identities, it can also expose learners to a range of pedagogical and ethical risks.

This article has argued that concerns relating to age-inappropriate sexuality, violence, ideological influence, authorial bias, historical representation, racism, sexism, and gender-based violence deserve greater attention within literature pedagogy. Rather than abandoning literature or restricting intellectual freedom, educators should adopt a risk-aware framework that integrates risk identification, mitigation strategies, critical literacy, and cost-benefit analysis.

The future of literature teaching in Nigeria and other developing countries lies not in choosing between celebration and criticism but in combining both. Literature should continue to challenge, inspire, and educate young people, but it should do so within pedagogical frameworks that consciously maximize its benefits while minimizing its potential harms.

References

Alexander, R. (2008). Essays on pedagogy. Routledge.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. Macmillan.

Fish, S. (1980). Is there a text in this class? The authority of interpretive communities. Harvard University Press.

Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed (Original work published 1970). Continuum.

Iser, W. (1978). The act of reading: A theory of aesthetic response. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Janks, H. (2010). Literacy and power. Routledge.

Luke, A. (2000). Critical literacy in Australia: A matter of context and standpoint. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 43(5), 448–461.

Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D. (1994). Foregrounding, defamiliarization, and affect: Response to literary stories. Poetics, 22(5), 389–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-422X(94)90022-1 (doi.org in Bing)

Pandya, J. Z., Mora, R. A., Alford, J. H., Golden, N. A., & de Roock, R. S. (Eds.). (2021). The handbook of critical literacies. Routledge.

Piper, B., & Dubeck, M. M. (2024). Responding to the learning crisis: Structured pedagogy in sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Educational Development, 109, 103095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2024.103095 (doi.org in Bing)

Rosenblatt, L. M. (1978). The reader, the text, the poem. Southern Illinois University Press.

Rosenblatt, L. M. (1995). Literature as exploration (Original work published 1938). Modern Language Association.

Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411 (doi.org in Bing)

Tompkins, J. P. (Ed.). (1980). Reader-response criticism: From formalism to post-structuralism. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.

Texts cited

Achebe, C. (2012). There was a country: A personal history of Biafra. Penguin.

Adichie, C.N. (2003) Purple Hibiscus. Chapel Hill, Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill

Adichie, C. N. (2006). Half of a yellow sun. Alfred A. Knopf.

Adichie, C. N (2009). The thing around your neck, Alfred A. Knopf.

Adichie, C. N. (2013). Americanah. Alfred A. Knopf.

Adichie, C. N (2025).  Dream Count, Alfred A. Knopf.

Ba M (1981) So long a letter, Heinemann

Beti, M. (1958/2005). Mission to Kala. Heinemann.

Ekwensi, C (1960) The Passport of Mallam Ilia, Cambridge University Press

Ousmane, S. (1960). God’s bits of wood. Heinemann.

P’Bitek Okot (1966) Song of Lawino: A Lament. East African Publishing House

Posted in Basic Education, governance, Politics

Towards Developing a Training Package for House Committee members on Basic Education

Posted on by Noel Ihebuzor

by

Noel Ihebuzor

Interest in increasing the effectiveness of actors and duty bearers in the public domain has continued to grow since its beginnings following the launch of the movement in new public management (Hood, 1991; Gruening, 2001). The advantages claimed for a New Public management (NPM) approach in governance include the following – greater efficiency, greater focus on performance and results as well as their objective measurement, improved use of resources, these including human, financial and material resources. Hand in hand with these developments in public sector management has been a call for greater value for money in the use of resources appropriated by governments in the provision of basic social services such as Basic Education, primary health care as well as water and environmental sanitation. Members of parliament have important roles not only in ensuring that budgets are approved and appropriated for the provision of such basic social services but also in seeing that the approved budgets are utilized in manners consistent with the best practices in public finance management (PFM). Such roles ensure that cost savings, cost efficiencies and service maximization are achieved in the use of public resources and assets.  

It is such development thinking that informs the support that development partners working through relevant ministries continue to provide to the training and sensitization of law makers in Nigeria. UNICEF, for instance, has supported the design and development of a training manual for the training and sensitization of law makers from the state houses of assembly who are members of house committee on education. The purpose is to aid in their understanding of the processes primarily around the UBE act as well as other education documents/plans as a necessary step strengthening their capacity to provide required legislation and oversight for the education sector.

The training/sensitization programme has two objectives:

  • to facilitate an enhanced understanding of the education sector and its recurring challenges.
  • to acquaint law makers on the role they should play to protect education especially at the basic level through legislation and oversight.

Basic Premises

Basic Education is the foundation of all education. If the foundation is weak, then the entire edifice risks instability and possible eventual collapse. It is therefore important that this substructure of education is solidly built. Secondly, basic education caters for the education for all at the base. It is thus the level of education with the greatest egalitarian relevance and appeal. It is the level of education that any one with an interest in inclusive education will first to need to tackle and get right. A society with an interest in stimulating economic growth through investment in education will also need to invest in basic education as it has been shown to have multiplier effects of all other aspects of education and uptake of basic social services. All the thinking above inform global interest in universal basic education as one lever for vital socio-economic transformation.

The UBE programme in Nigeria has its parentage in a number of human rights documents and development program thinking. Most human rights declarations make the important distinction between those who have rights holders and those whose custodial, constitutional and social functions are to ensure that those rights are met. Such persons are known as duty bearers. There is now evidence that the capacity and ability of duty bearers to effectively discharge their obligations to duty holders is a function of several factors  –

  • Understanding and appreciation of those rights
  • Importance and significance of those rights
  • Awareness of and Empathy with the plight of rights holder
  • Sense of Solidarity with rights holder
  • Level of Education and information of the basis of those rights
  • Knowledge of what to do and who to partner with to further those rights etc

In furthering the actualization of the rights of rights holders, duty bearers carry out a number of linked functions which include

  • Service provision
  • Procurement
  • Service supervision and monitoring,
  • Advocacy and awareness creation,
  • Alliance building and networking
  • Standards setting 
  • Compliance monitoring
  • Law making        
  • Mentoring, etc

Though all these functions are important, perhaps the most important is that of supervision. Supervision ensures compliance with agreed standards, proper resource utilisation, service provider conduct and presence, effective service delivery and waster minimisation. This is true whether we are dealing with duty bearer functions in the areas of water and sanitation, housing, leisure, recreation, nutrition or education. Indeed, in basic education, supervision by duty bearers leads to greater value for money and to ensuring that public resources set aside for or dedicated to basic education are optimally utilized.

Of all duty bearers, members of the house of representatives, especially those in committees charged with oversight functions for Basic education, have a critical role to play in the sustenance of BASIC EDUCATION.  They can carry out these roles in several ways, some of which have been mention in passing earlier in our general consideration of the roles of duty bearers in the provision of universal basic education. With specific regard to this subsector of basic social services, members of the House committee can get involved in the following ways

Advocating with the Executive for improved budgets for basic education

Insisting on improved public finance management as it concerns basic education at all levels of the value chain

Moving bills for basic education management, administration and or improvement, be these in the areas of minimum standards, Teacher hiring and firing, Teacher Incentives, Teacher Qualifications, Conditions for PRESET and INSET

Monitoring resource utilization in basic education

Lobbying, influencing and mobilizing other policy makers, the executive, the private sector and other social influencers for necessary policy changes that would advance all aspects of basic education be it Access, Retention, Quality and Completion.

To carry out these many functions, such House committee members need to equipped through exposure to a learning package which blends elements of sensitisation and guided learning experiences to acquire certain skills, affects and capacities.

The rest of this paper describes the steps taken in the design and development of this special programme for house committee members of basic education. It describes the processes adopted as well as the considerations that informed them.The development described below was carried out by a group of educators, teacher trainers, educational planners and administrators working together as a team. The emphasis here is on team work.

Step 1 – identify the essential core and content of the learning package.

To do this, the team had to answer the question – for a house member to lobby effectively for universal Basic education, to monitor Basic education provision, to provide oversight for basic education provision, to make laws for basic education, to move bills for basic education, to become an advocate for basic education, what does he or she need to know? Questions like this represent some form of indirect needs assessment. As is now well accepted, needs assessment is a necessary first step in the design of relevant learning experiences and packages.  Carried out in the form of a brain storming exercise by the design team, this exercise yielded the following three core knowledge needs/areas of vital learning

Policy framework for basic education – National   Policy   on   Education (NPE) 2013, normative framework for basic education provision

Nigeria and Universal Basic Education Programme (UBEP) – some history and Context and How UBEP works

Functions of House Committee on Education with regards to Universal Basic Education

These three core learning areas were examined and debated until consensus was achieved that they constituted the necessary, sufficient-Adequate and relevant tripod on which the learning package for House committee members could be built. It is important for us to remind ourselves here that necessity, sufficiency-adequacy and relevance are the prime determinants of correct choices in curriculum design.

Step 2 Conduct a task analysis and work breakdown of each of the elements of the legs of the tripod

The team agreed that the next step would demand that each leg of the tripod be now broken into its constituent parts. For this exercise, the writing team broke into three groups, with a group working on one of the tripods. At the end of the exercise, a plenary was conducted and the following sketch outlines were agreed upon for each of the three arms of the tripod.

Policy framework for basic education – National   Policy   on   Education (NPE) 2013, normative framework for basic education provision

  • The National Policy on Education (NPE) – policy thrust and specification and prescriptions by level
  • Normative frameworks influencing and guiding educational provosions- The Universal Declaration of Human rights, The UN Convention Rights of the Child, The African Union Charter on African Child, The UN Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), and the Ssustainable Development Goals (SDG)
  • Data speaks – the importance of data in education planning and what current data says for each state
  • Key issues in Basic Education – Access, Participation, Retention, Completion, Quality and their indicators, Net versus Gross enrolment
  • Contending issues in basic education – Equity, Inclusion, Inclusion, Gender, Costs of Basic Education, Benefit of Basic Education, Externalities of Basic education, Out of School Children;
  • Things that make for quality education – learner, instructional, administrative, school plant, and environmental factors
  • Quality indicators in basic education delivery
  • Quality versus non – quality indicators in Basic Education

Nigeria and Universal Basic Education Programme (UBEP) – some history and Context and How UBEP works

  • National and global antecedents of UPE and UBE
  • The Regions and Education Ordinances 
  • UBE Legislative framework.
  • Education indicators
  • Education plans and levels – strategic plans versus operational plans
  • Effective schools – their attributes and things to look out when monitoring basic education
  • How to make schools effective
  • Obstacles in the implementation of Basic Education and Strategies to overcome them.
  • Example of successful implementation of basic education act from a comparable country and what this means for Nigeria  

Functions of House Committee on Education with regards to Universal Basic Education

  • Committee members and their roles and responsibilities to the basic education sub-sector
  • Skills required to discharge these roles and to function effectively
  • Revisit to core indicators that would guide the discharge of the roles and responsibilities of house committee members

Step 3

Constitute each of these tripods into a learning session and develop learning outcomes for each session

SESSION 1

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session, participants should be able to:

SESSION 2

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the session, House Committee Members should be able to:

Session 3

SESSION 3

Members of the Education Committee have among their numerous functions the responsibility of oversight of education matters.  This responsibility involves ensuring a variety of outcomes in education through monitoring, supervision, advocating, lobbying for bills and laws by consultations, communication, negotiation, consensus and relationship building. 

At the end of the session, House Committee Members should be able to:

Step 4

Develop the learning package in line with steps 1-3 above

Step 5

Subject the output of step to peer review, critique and validation.

Validation of this training document was done through a live presentation with lawmakers from four states. Reception was positive and indeed enthusiastic. The writing team however also learnt a few lessons from active engagement and participation in the process for strategic planning and Programme implementation 

Lessons learnt

Some lessons were learnt in developing the training materials. These include the following:

importance of team work

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importance of context sensitive learning materials development

importance of peer review

the sobering truth that effective curriculum building as an interactive process

the fact that effective curriculum development is an iterative process

importance of stating clear and realistic learning outcomes

Writing

      Hood C. 1991. A public management for all seasons?, Public Administration. Vol. 69. No. 1

Gruening, G (2001) Origin and theoretical basis of New Public Management, International Public Management Journal 4,  1–25

Posted in Basic Education, Politics

Communication for Development (C4D) and its relevance to development across all sectors in general and to education in particular –

Posted on by Noel Ihebuzor

Talking points for the

CABE/C4D/GEP 3 workshop April 2019

developed

By

Noel A. Ihebuzor, FSSD

  • What is C4D?
  • Fefer to processes, strategies, materials and activities conceived and executed to catalyze, galvanize, spur, support development efforts in a given polity
  • Is context sensitive and culture informed and incorporates elements of semiotics, marketing, journalism, sociology, psychology, metrics, monitoring and evaluation and business management.
  • Grew out of initial beginnings in audiovisual aids and then to IEC, through BCC and to full grown C4D
  • C4D is integrated and Deals with both the supply and demand side of development planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation 

Excerpt from Unicef

Communication for Development (C4D) is one of the most empowering ways of improving health, nutrition and other key social outcomes for children and their families.

In UNICEF, C4D is defined as a systematic, planned and evidence-based strategic process to promote positive and measurable individual behaviour and social change that is an integral part of development programmes, policy advocacy and humanitarian work.

C4D uses dialogue and consultation with, and participation of children, their families and communities. It privileges local contexts and relies on a mix of communication tools, channels and approaches. C4D is not public relations or corporate communications.

C4D seeks to accelerate achievement of key results in UNICEF’s Medium-term Strategic Plan (MTSP) for the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by:

Increasing knowledge and awarenessImproving and building new skillsMaintaining and increasing demand for products and servicesImproving the performance of service providers Changing individual behaviors and collective practicesInfluencing attitudes, social norms and power relationshipsEnhancing self-esteem and promoting self-efficacyChanging national and local policies and legislation
  • Basic education needs C4D but according to the consultant C4D is under-represented in education unlike in medicine
  • And Education?
  • Education is core to development 
  • Education confers so many benefits
  • The unplanned benefits are known as externalities 
  • Externalities include increased earning ability, poverty reduction, break in intergenerational transmission of poverty, drop in fertility, rise in literacy etc
  • EDUCATION at both global and local levels is characterized by issues of gender based, social class related and location induced disparities
  • Too many kids of the poor are out of school for a host of reasons
  • Too many kids in rural areas are out of school – economics, culture, patriarchy, male child preference, parental poverty, ignorance, superstition, religious zeal?
  • Key issues in education are ACCESS, QUALITY & ACCOUNTABILITY 
  • Access issues include limited number in schools OOSCI, absence of school space, low NER and GER, NAR,  plus the distance that drive these – fees, distance to school, safety issues
  • Quality issues deal with instructional materials and teacher factors in school including teacher training, teacher numbers, and time spent on teaching, curriculum, methods and methodology and a host of CFS related issues
  • Accountability challenges relate to general governance issues, stakeholder engagement, school supervision, duty bearer failures – eg not mobilizing communities, not creating awareness, poor service delivery, rights holders not asking for their rights, the externalizing of responsibilities, ignorance, weakness, sloppiness, failures in attendance monitoring, teacher management and general incentives,
  • The general theory on which the study is designed around is that all of these are amenable to improvement through C4D
  • Is the pitch for Integrating Koranic schools a red herring? What of quality issues involved?
  • Study also looks at the mapping of current C4D interventions and suggests how synergies can be achieved through better stakeholder coordination and dialogue 
Posted in Basic Education, governance, Uncategorized

The role of LGAs in delivering Quality in Basic education – Talk by Noel Ihebuzor at the training organized for LGAE officials as part of UNICEF’s support to Systems strengthening in Basic Education

Posted on by Noel Ihebuzor

Three terms are vital for an effective coverage of the topic – these are – Local Government Authorities, Quality and Basic education. Let us look at each in turn, starting from Quality

Quality

  • Quality involves standards
  • It means fit for purpose
  • It implies relevance and functionality
  • It means meeting some basic criteria and norms,
  • It carries the implication of good and possessing attributes that align with national goals and development
  • It suggests effectiveness and efficiency
  • It means desirable and something of value

Quality does not simply happen, it does not fall from the sky  – it is the result of human action.

  • Quality requires planning, it requires work, it
    requires sweat, but that sweat produces sweet results
  • Quality comes around when good and relevant
    processes, policies, strategies are combined with the tactics and activities

Basic Education – education in the first nine years of formal schooling,

  • Foundation for all further education
  • Covers primary, pre-primary, ECD, NFE,
    Alternative education such as IQE
  • It is the base on which all other education
    efforts are built on.
  • It is the foundation of all other education
  • Important are for national development.
  • It is also important for personal development –
    benefits include learning new things – (literacy and numeracy + emotional and
    social literacies), preparing the mind to learn new things and socializing.
  • Completion of basic offers a whole array social
    benefits, these benefits including social, health, Nutrition, workforce
    development.

LGAE- this the level of administration closest the people. We have 774 of thee in Nigeria

In Nigeria, Basic education is the responsibility of the state and local government levels of administration.

Responsibility for the day to day management of Basic education rests however with Local governments.

Such responsibility includes the responsibility for quality in basic education Planning, Research, Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation – PRIME.

Plans are essential to move Basic Education forward, especially good operational plans. Good operational plans are realistic, participatory and inclusive in their design. They are equity and disparity reduction in their intentions, processes and strategies. Their indicative budgets are realistic, competitive and are built on established industry benchmarks. They are evidence-based, context-sensitive and implementable. They have reliable baselines and have monitoring & evaluation frameworks with valid indicators for measuring progress

Quality in Basic Education results from the interaction of four factors. They also have reliable and relevant midlines and end lines.

Quality in BASIC EDUCATION

In any educational system quality results from the interaction of four variables – these are learner, instructional, socio-cultural and administrative variables – LISA. We can also call these factors. These factors interact and influence one another.

Each of these factors is turn made up of several factors –

Learner factors are made up of the age, sex, socio-economic status, family background, achievement orientation, interest, intelligence, aptitude, attitude, character of the learners, etc.

Some of these are beyond the capacity of LGAE authorities to determine. Some, they can influence, some they can control. Which ones from the listing above are within the control and influence of the LGAE?

Instructional factors include teacher qualification, teacher certification, teacher conditions of employment, sex of teacher, age, experience, degree of motivation of teachers, curriculum, syllabus, books, school materials, school toilets, classroom size, desks, chairs, writing materials, lesson notes, length of lesson, type of shift in school – single or double shift? Can you list some more? 

Which of these are within the control and influence of the LGAE?

Socio-cultural factors include cultural and social norms, gender norms, attitudes to life. Attitude to education, cultural orientation, cultural beliefs etc. Are any of these under the direct influence of the LGEA?

Administrative factors include school buildings, school resources, blackboards, storage facilities, toilet facilities, school policies, regulations, procurement policies, Procurement practices, maintenance policies, employment and HR policies,  teachers’ salaries, training policies, financing, school budgets, fund allocation,  school census, school mapping, school plant size management, school design, classroom  design, ventilation, lighting, school Inspection and support services, etc.

For an educational system to effective, efficient and successful, all the four factors of LISA must be in harmony. They must all agree. They must also support one another.

Let me give an example – if you provide enough budgets and use them transparently and in keeping with procurement policies, you will build more classroom; if you build more classrooms, your pupil-classroom ratio will improve, if this improves, learners will be more comfortable, if learners are more comfortable, then more learning will likely take place

Another example – if teachers’ salaries are paid regularly, teachers will be more motivated, if teachers are more motivated, they will teach more effectively, if they teach more effectively, many more learners will learn.

Try your hands now with working out such relationships between instructional factors and learner factors. Do the same for learner factors and administrative factors. Ditto for socio-cultural factors and administrative factors.

You will soon begin to see the links between these different elements. You will soon begin to appreciate that what you as LGAE can influence the quality of Basic Education in your LGA.

Ask yourself this question – what is it that we want to see as accountable, professional and effective LGEA workers? I believe these would be the following

  • More children are going through our basic
    education system and passing well
  • Less and less repetition and wastage are noted in
    our schools
  • More and more children move from one year to another
    and pass each grade
  • More teachers are employed in our basic
    education system and are teaching well and inculcating positive values
  • More teachers in our LGA are being supported
    through regular and supportive inspection, monitoring and mentoring visits
  • More and more teachers in our LGAE are supported
    through value adding In-Service Teacher training and continuous Professional
    Development
  • More relevant teaching-learning materials are
    availed to all learners in our school schools and the pupils are using these to
    learn, survive, and thrive in and out of school
  • More resources are being spent in schools and
    our spending and funds use are rational, transparent, procedures compliant and
    achieve high returns on our investment
  • More school buildings and school facilities are
    availed
  • More gender equity is achieved in our schools
    because of good planning
  • More girls are in school, completing school and
    passing well because our teachers have been taught to be gender friendly and
    responsive in their pedagogic practices
  • More and more schools are gender friendly with
    toilet facilities and water and sanitation access
  • Schools are more efficient because school
    planning is based on correct evidence and very up-to-date statistics
  • Resources are in schools and are optimally being used and the LGA is achieving value for money through realistic spending and costing

Some of the above are the benefits of good planning. The listing also contains some of the indicators of quality in Basic education. Your state needs quality in Basic Education. And you can make it happen.

Be the change! Remember the power of one!

Good luck.

Noel Ihebuzor, LC, FoL